OFFICIAL 


HANDBOOK 


OF  THE  <^r 


PANAMA 
CANAL 

HHE  P  CANAL  EXHIBIT 

">  BUiCT>IWQ, 
SAN  FRANCISCO,  CALIF. 

1915 


S.  S.  ANCON   PASSING  CONTINENTAL  DIVIDE,  AUGUST  15,  1914. 


OFFICIAL 

HANDBOOK 


OF   THE 


PANAMA 
CANAL 


1915 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1915 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introductory 5 

Distances  saved 7 

Distances  saved  in  trade  routes  between  important  areas 8 

Tables  of  distances  and  time  saved  by  canal  route 10 

How  a  vessel  is  handled  through  the  canal 16 

Methods  of  depositing  Panama  Canal  tolls  in  United  States  and 

foreign  countries 16 

Local  agents  unnecessary 17 

Government  pilots  necessary 18 

Time  required  for  transit 18 

Towing  vessels  through  locks  by  towing  locomotives 20 

Handling  of  ships  in  locks 21 

Tug  service 21 

Facilities  for  shipping "?  22 

Large  dry  dock  at  Balboa 22 

Fuel-oil  handling  plants 22 

Coaling  plants 22 

Water  supply  for  ships 22 

General  supplies - .  24 

Repairs 24 

Hotel  and  hospital  accommodations  and  cable  connections 25 

Method  of  application  for  supplies 26 

Prices  of  supplies 26 

Charges  for  services 27 

Savings  in  cost 30 

Saving  in  cost  of  operation  by  use  of  canal — specific  instances 

cited  where  vessels  have  used  canal 30 

Tolls 33 

Levied  on  cargo  and  passenger  carrying  capacity .33 

Officials  from  whom  tonnage  certificates  may  be  obtained 33 

Time  required  to  measure  vessels  at  Isthmus 33 

Panama  Canal  tonnage 34 

Bates  of  toll 34 

Tonnage  measurement  in  commercial  operations  compared  with 

Panama  Canal  tonnage 34 

Tolls  collected  to  May  1,  1915 36 

3 


311790 


4  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Sailing  ships 37 

Use  of  canal  by  sailing  ships 37 

Savings  effected , 38 

The  canal  and  the  Navy 41 

Effectiveness  of  Navy  increased 41 

Monetary  saving  to  United  States 41 

Features  of  construction 42 

Location  of  canal 42 

Principal  features  of  canal  construction 44 

Gatun  Dam 44 

Gatun  Spillway 44 

Hydroelectric  station 45 

Gatun  Lake 45 

Gaillard  Cut 46 

Miraflores  Lake ; . . .  46 

Locks 48 

Traffic  routes 51 

First  six  months  of  canal  operation — destination  of  vessels  and 

their  cargo  tonnage 51 

Coastwise  trade  of  United  States 51 

Nature  of  traffic  between  various  points 52 

Principal  commodities  shipped  via  canal 52 

Tabulation  showing  distribution  of  cargo  tonnage 56 

Canal  tonnage  in  terms  of  railway  traffic 56 

• 


INTRODUCTORY. 

Since  the  golden  age  of  discovery  inaugurated  by  Colum- 
bus the  quest  for  an  all-water  way  from  Europe  to  the  Far 
East,  across  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  has  been  a  world  obsession. 

The  idea  has  possessed  the  minds  of  navigators,  shippers, 
business  men,  admirals,  and  Governments.  Dozens  of  proj- 
ects for  the  forcing  of  the  passage  have  been  advanced ;  thou- 
sands of  lives  have  been  lost  in  the  efforts. 

On  May  4, 1904,  the  Government  of  the  United  States  took 
possession  of  a  strip  of  land  10  miles  wide  running  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  called  the  Canal  Zone.  On 
August  15, 1914,  the  Panama  Canal  was  opened  to  commerce. 

This  began  the  era  of  operation.  This  is  the  time  of  reali- 
zation of  the  actual  condition  to  which  we  have  been  looking 
forward  so  long.  To  tell  something  of  the  canal  in  opera- 
tion, how  it  is  managed,  the  distances  it  saves,  with  the  result- 
ing economy  in  operation  of  vessels  using  the  canal,  and  the 
ways  the  trade  is  moving,  are  some  of  the  purposes  of  this 
handbook. 

5 


OFFICIAL  HANDBOOK 

OF  THE 

PANAMA  CANAL. 

<^ 

DISTANCES  SAVED. 

From  Colon,  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama, to  Balboa,  on  the  Pacific  side,  the  distance  by  water, 
around  South  America,  is  10,500  nautical  miles.  Through 
the  canal  that  distance  is  reduced  to  less  than  44  miles. 

The  difference  in  length  of  these  routes,  10,456  miles,  rep- 
resents the  maximum  distance  that  can  be  saved  to  a  vessel 
by  use  of  the  canal.  This  maximum  is  more  interesting  geo- 
graphically than  commercially  because  vessels  bound  for  the 
Pacific  coast  by  way  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan  would  not 
skirt  the  entire  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America,  but  would 
strike  across  the  Caribbean,  if  from  the  United  States,  or  the 
central  Atlantic,  if  from  Europe,  and  proceed  by  the  most 
direct  route  consistent  with  commercial  advantage.  But  the 
saving  is  not  purely  hypothetical.  The  tug  Reliance,  once 
employed  in  the  Atlantic  entrance  of  the  canal,  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Pacific,  entrance  by  way  of  Magellan.  The 
voyage  required  126  days,  and  the  Reliance  has  since  several 
times  made  the  transit  from  ocean  to  ocean  in  one  day  in  pass- 
ing back  and  forth  between  Colon  and  Balboa  by  way  of  the 
canal. 

What  counts  in  the  commercial  value  of  the  canal  is  not 
the  distance  that  could  be  saved  but  the  distances  that  are 
saved  by  vessels  substituting  the  canal  route  for  the  earlier 
'round-the-continent  route  in  regular  trade.  Following  are 
some  of  the  savings  on  great  trade  routes,  between  important 
areas : 

The  great  United  States  Atlantic  port  of  New  York,  for 
instance,  is  nearer  to  the  great  Pacific  port  of  San  Francisco, 
through  the  use  of  the  canal,  by  7,873  nautical  miles.  The 
distance  of  13,135  miles  by  Magellan  has  been  reduced  to 

96642°— 15— — 2  7 


8  "  'OFFICIAL^  liA'NDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

5,262  miles  by  the  canal.  The  water  distance  between  these 
ports  is  two- fifths  what  it  used  to  be. 

So  far  in  the  use  of  the  canal,  over  40  per  cent  of  the 
vessels  which  have  passed  through  it  have  been  engaged  in 
the  coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States — each  of  them 
saving  about  7,800  miles  on  each  trip.  If  their  average 
speed  be  taken  at  10  knots,  they  have  averaged  a  saving  of 
over  a  month  at  sea  on  each  voyage  from  coast  to  coast. 
Where  formerly  the  round  trip  of  a  10-knot  vessel  required 
about  55  days'  actual  steaming,  the  time  at  sea  for  the 
same  trip  for  the  same  vessel  is  now  reduced  to  about  22 
days. 

The  next  heaviest  traffic  through  the  canal  is  between  the 
Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  The  canal 
makes  San  Francisco  nearer  to  Liverpool  by  5,666  miles,  a 
saving  of  two-fifths  of  the  old  journey  by  Magellan.  The 
distance  between  San  Francisco  and  Gibraltar  has  been 
reduced  from  12,571  miles  to  7,621  miles,  a  saving  of  4,950 
miles  or  39  per  cent  of  the  former  distance. 

From  San  Francisco  to  Buenos  Aires,  via  Valparaiso  and 
Magellan,  is  approximately  7,610  miles  which  is  shorter 
than  the  route  through  the  canal,  by  which  the  distance  is 
8,941  miles.  To  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  distance  via  Magellan  is 
8,609  miles;  by  the  canal  7,885  miles.  To  Pernambuco,  on 
the  eastern  promontory  of  South  America,  the  distance  via 
Magellan  is  9,748  miles ;  via  the  canal  6,746  miles.  To  Para 
the  distances  via  Magellan  and  via  the  canal  are  10,852  and 
5,642  miles,  respectively. 

From  San  Francisco  to  Freetown,  on  the  west  coast  of 
middle  Africa,  the  distance  by  the  most  practicable  route, 
using  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  is  11,380  miles.  Through  the 
canal  and  by  way  of  the  island  of  Barbados,  the  distance  is 
7,277  miles.  The  new  route  is  less  than  two-thirds  of  the 
former. 

With  reference  to  the  trade  between  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  United  States  and  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  New 
York  is  nearer  to  Valparaiso  by  3,717  miles  by  virtue  of 
the  canal;  to  Iquique,  one  of  the  great  nitrate  ports,  by 


•    OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL.  9 

4,139  miles;  and  to  Guayaquil  by  7,405  miles.  From  New 
York  to  Guayaquil  the  present  distance  of  2,765  miles  is 
approximately  27  per  cent  of  the  former  distance — 10,270 
miles. 

As  to  the  Far  East,  New  York  is  nearer  to  Yokohama 
by  3,768  miles  than  formerly  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal,  but 
the  latter  route  is  18  miles  shorter  than  the  Panama  route 
for  vessels  plying  between  New  York  and  Hongkong.  New 
York  is  41  miles  nearer  Manila  by  Panama  than  by  Suez, 
and  3,932  miles  nearer  Sydney  by  Panama.  New  York  is 
now,  by  virtue  of  the  Panama  Canal3  nearer  than  Liverpool 
to  Yokohama  by  1,880  miles,  and  nearer  than  Liverpool  to 
Sydney  by  2,424  miles. 

The  foregoing  are  typical  instances  of  the  changes  of 
routes  effected  by  the  opening  of  the  canal.  Detailed  tabu- 
lations of  distances  are  given  in  the  appended  tables. 


10 


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-15 3 


HOW  A  VESSEL  IS  HANDLED  THROUGH  THE 
CANAL. 

For  a  steamship  owner  or  agent  to  send  a  vessel  through 
the  canal  is  one  of  the  simplest  matters  in  all  his  business. 
Practically  all  he  has  to  do  is  to  make  a  deposit  with  the  Gov- 
ernment to  cover  the  vessel's  canal  expenses.  The  Govern- 
ment will  attend  to  everything  else, — and  return  his  change 
as  soon  as  the  vessel  has  cleared  from  the  canal. 

There  are  several  ways  by  which  money  may  be  advanced 
to  cover  canal  charges.  The  simplest  and  most  direct  and 
the  one  usually  followed  is  to  make  a  deposit  with  an  as- 
sistant treasurer  of  the  United  States  (there  is  one  in  every 
large  port  of  the  United  States).  The  assistant  treasurer 
will,  on  request,  telegraph  the  Washington  office  of  The 
Panama  Canal  which  will  cable  notice  of  the  placing  of  the 
deposit  to  the  canal  authorities  on  the  Isthmus,  who  then 
make  all  arrangements  to  give  the  vessel  the  quickest  dis- 
patch through  the  canal  as  soon  as  it  presents  itself  at  either 
port  of  entry. 

The  method  outlined  above  is  equally  easy  for  an  owner  or 
agent  in  a  foreign  country.  He  can  simply  direct  his  bank, 
which  will  have  connections  with  a  bank  or  banks  in  the 
United  States,  to  have  a  deposit  placed  with  the  assistant 
treasurer,  say,  in  New  York  or  San  Francisco.  This  done, 
16 


OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL.  17 

the  conduct  of  the  rest  of  the  business  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Government. 

Another  method  which  may  be  followed  in  making  the 
deposit,  but  which  is  more  complicated,  is  to  deposit  certain 
high-grade  bonds  with  the  assistant  auditor  of  the  Panama 
Canal  in  Washington  as  security  and  to  make  payment  by 
draft.  Drafts  to  the  accepted  value  of  the  bonds  will  then 
be  accepted  for  conversion  into  cash,  the  value  of  the  drafts 
being  secured  to  the  Government  by  its  tenure  of  the  bonds. 
This  arrangement  is  supposed  to  be  especially  convenient  for 
companies  having  frequent  sailings  through  the  canal. 

A  third  method  is  to  make  payment  in  cash  to  the  collector 
on  the  Isthmus.  The  probabilities  are  that  this  method  will 
not  be  used  often,  except  in  cases  of  yachts  and  other  small 
vessels,  on  account  of  the  inconvenience  and  risk  of  carrying 
credit,  to  apply  on  future  bills. 

By  whichever  method  the  advance  payment  is  made,  it 
should  be  amply  sufficient  to  cover  the  estimated  tolls  as  well 
as  any  other  probable  expenses,  such  as  for  fuel,  supplies, 
cable  messages,  etc.  Whatever  balance  is  due  the  depositor 
after  the  vessel's  expenses  have  been  paid  will  be  refunded 
him,  by  check  on  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States,  directly 
after  the  vessel  has  cleared  from  the  canal.  If  the  depositor 
expressely  requests  it,  any  balance  due  him  will  be  left  to  his 
credit,  to  apply  on  future  bills. 

Some  owners  or  agents  who  may  have  been  unaware  of  the 
simple  and  prompt  method  by  which  their  business  with  the 
canal  can  be  handled,  have  employed  local  agents  on  the 
Isthmus  to  look  after  the  interests  of  their  vessels,  or  have 
arranged  with  local  banks  to  pay  their  bills.  Such  arrange- 
ments are  neither  necessary  nor  desirable.  The  one  thing 
important  is  to  provide  the  money  to  pay  the  ship's  bills. 
That  is  done  most  expeditiously  through  the  Government's 
arrangements,  as  outlined  above,  and  when  it  has  been  done 
the  canal  organization  handles  the  ship's  business  with  a 
minimum  of  delay.  The  introduction  of  a  third  party  in  the 
transaction  tends  to  complicate  the  situation  and  actually  to 
delay  the  transit  of  the  ship,  by  interfering  with  the  usual 


18  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

methods  of  handling  business  by  the  canal  authorities  in 
connection  therewith. 

When  the  ship  enters  the  harbor  of  either  of  the  terminal 
ports  it  is  boarded  by  officers  of  the  canal  who  examine  its 
bill  of  health  and  clearance,  see  that  its  certificate  of  canal 
measurement  is  properly  made  out,  and  ascertain  any  of  the 
vessels  needs  in  the  matters  of  fuel,  supplies,  extra  men  to 
handle  the  lines  during  the  passage  of  the  locks,  etc.  These 
matters  are  immediately  reported  to  the  Captain  of  the 
Port,  who  gives  the  necessary  orders  to  insure  proper  attend- 
ance on  the  vessel's  needs  and  directs  its  start  through  the 
canal  whenever  it  is  ready. 

In  all  stages  of  its  transit  of  the  canal  the  vessel  must  have 
on  board  a  Government  pilot.  There  is  no  charge  for  pilot- 
age on  vessels  going  directly  through  the  canal  without  stop- 
ping to  discharge  cargo  or  passengers  at  the  terminal  ports. 
The  pilot  is  on  board  in  an  advisory  capacity  and  is  re- 
quired to  confer  with  the  master  of  the  vessel,  giving  him 
the  benefit  of  his  knowledge  and  advice  as  to  the  handling  of 
the  vessel  in  the  various  reaches,  but  the  master,  who  is  best 
acquainted  wdth  the  peculiarities  of  his  vessel  and  hor  ways 
of  answering  the  helm,  is  responsible  for  the  navigation  pf 
the  vessel,  except  when  she  is  passing  through  the  locks. 

The  handling  of  a  vessel  during  its  transit  of  the  canal  is 
like  the  handling  of  a  railway  train  on  its  "  run."  The 
course  is  equipped  with  all  requisite  signals,  facilities  for 
mooring,  like  sidings,  and  a  system  of  communication  be- 
tween points  along  the"  line,  which  includes  a  special  tele- 
phone system  connecting  all  the  important  points  of  control 
in  series. 

As  soon  as  the  vessel  starts  on  its  transit  of  the  canal,  the 
Captain  of  the  Port  at  the  point  of  entrance  telephones  its 
starting  to  the  other  stations  along  the  course.  As  the  vessel 
arrives  and  departs  from  each  of  these  points,  the  fact  is 
telephoned  along  the  line,  so  that  there  is  exact  knowledge  at 
each  station  all  the  time  of  the  status  of  traffic,  and  complete 
cooperation  from  the  several  points  of  control. 

The  transit  of  the  canal  requires  about  10  hours,  of  which 
approximately  3  hours  are  spent  in  the  locks.  In  the  sea- 


20  OFFICIAL    HANDBOOK    OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

level  channels  and  Gaillard  (formerly  "Culebra")  Cut  the 
speed  of  vessels  is  limited  to  6  knots;  through  Gatun  Lake 
they  may  make  10,  12,  and  15  knots,  according  to  the  width 
of  the  channel.  A  vessel  may  clear  from  the  canal  port  at 
which  it  enters  and,  after  passing  through  the  last  of  the 
locks,  put  direct  to  sea  without  further  stop. 

The  handling  of  a  vessel  all  through  the  canal,  except  in 
the  locks,  is  essentially  the  same  as  its  handling  through  any 
charted  channel  where  observance  of  signals,  ranges,  and 
turns  is  necessary.  The  canal  channel  throughout  is  very 
accurately  charted,  fully  equipped  with  aids  to  navigation, 
and  governed  by  explicit  rules  with  which  the  pilots,  of 
course,  are  thoroughly  familiar. 

In  the  locks,  the  vessel  is  under  the  control  of  the  lock-oper- 
ating force.  As  the  vessel  approaches  the  locks,  the  operator 
in  charge  at  the  control  house  indicates  by  an  electrically  op- 
erated signal  at  the  outer  end  of  the  approach  wall  if  the 
vessel  shall  enter  the  locks,  and,  if  so,  on  which  side ;  or  if  it 
shall  keep  back  or  moor  alongside  the  approach  wall.  If 
everything  is  ready  for  the  transit  of  the  locks,  the  vessel 
approaches  the  center  approach  wall,  which  is  a  pier  extend- 
ing about  a  thousand  feet  from  the  locks  proper,  lines  are 
thrown  out,  and  connections  are  made  with  the  electric  tow- 
ing locomotives  on  the  approach  wall. 

The  vessel  then  moves  forward  slowly  until  it  is  in  the 
entrance  chamber,  when  lines  are  thrown  out  on  the  other 
side  and  connections  are  made  with  towing  locomotives  on  the 
side  wall.  Six  locomotives  are  used  for  the  larger  vessels, 
three  on  each  wall  of  the  lock  chamber.  Two  keep  forward 
of  the  vessel,  pulling  and  holding  her  head  to  the  center  of 
the  chamber;  two  aft,  holding  the  vessel  in  check;  and  two 
slightly  forward  of  amidships,  which  do  most  of  the  towing 
of  the  vessel  through  the  chamber.  The  locomotives  are  pow- 
erful affairs,  secured  against  slipping  by  the  engagement  of 
cogs  with  a  rack  running  along  the  center  of  the  track,  and 
equipped  with  a  slip  drum  and  towing  windlass,  which  allow 
the  prompt  paying  out  and  taking  in  of  hawser  as  required. 
No  trouble  has  been  experienced  in  maintaining  absolute  con- 
trol over  the  vessels. 


OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF   PANAMA   CANAL.  21 

The  water  within  the  lock  chamber  proper,  beyond  the 
entrance  chamber,  is  brought  to  the  level  of  that  in  the  ap- 
proach, the  gates  toward  the  vessel  are  opened,  the  fender 
chain  is  lowered,  and  the  locomotives  maneuver  the  vessel 
into  the  chamber  and  bring  it  to  rest.  The  gates  are  then 
closed,  the  water  raised  or  lowered,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the 
level  of  that  in  the  next  chamber,  the  gates  at  the  other  end 
are  opened,  and  the  vessel  moved  forward.  Three  such  steps 
are  made  at  Gatun,  two  at  Miraflores,  and  one  at  Pedro 
Miguel. 

When  the  vessel  has  passed  into  the  approach  chamber  at 
the  end  of  the  locks,  the  lines  from  the  towing  locomotives 
on  the  side  wall  are  first  cast  off,  then  those  from  the  loco- 
motives on  the  approach  wall,  and  the  vessel  clears  under  its 
own  power. 

Towing  is  not  ordinarily  required  in  any  part  of  the  canal, 
except  in  the  locks,  for  steam  or  motor  vessels.  Tug  service 
for  sailing  ships  or  vessels  without  motive  power  is  at  the 
rate  of  $15  per  hour.  If  the  channel  in  the  Cut  has  been  dis- 
turbed by  a  slide,  tugs  may  be  used  to  handle  vessels  past  the 
narrow  places,  but  in  such  cases  there  is  no  charge  for  the 
service  to  vessels  of  less  than  15,000  gross  tonnage. 


FACILITIES  FOR  SHIPPING. 

In  line  with  its  policy  of  making  the  canal  thoroughly 
serviceable  in  a  commercial  sense,  the  Government  is  equip- 
ping it  with  all  requisite  facilities  to  minimize  the  incidental 
delays  and  expenses  of  vessels  passing  through  it. 

The  facilities  are  now  ample  for  the  present  traffic,  except 
for  the  lack  of  a  large  dry  dock.  The  concrete  is  now  being 
placed  for  the  permanent  dry  dock  at  Balboa,  which  will 
accommodate  the  largest  vessels  afloat,  and  is  to  be  finished 
b}  the  end  of  1915. 

Extensive  fuel-oil  handling  plants,  with  which  are  con- 
nected tanks  belonging  to  individuals  and  companies,  as 
well  as  those  erected  by  the  Government,  have  been  estab- 
lished at  both  terminals  of  the  canal.  Oil  can  be  supplied 
to  ships  at  the  rate  of  1,200  barrels  per  hour  to  each  vessel. 

The  permanent  coaling  plants,  now  under  construction  at 
both  terminals,  will  each  be  able  to  load  coal  into  bunkers  of 
vessels  at  the  rate  of  2,000  tons  per  hour.  The  plant  at  the 
Atlantic  entrance  is  to  have  a  storage  capacity  of  a  little 
over  400,000  tons,  and  that  at  the  Pacific  entrance  wyill  have 
a  capacity  of  200,000  tons.  Both  will  be  equipped  with  un- 
loading and  loading  cranes.  These  plants  are  to  be  com- 
pleted early  in  1916.  The  present  means  of  supplying  coal 
to  vessels  are  from  lighters  at  the  Pacific  entrance,  and  from 
lighters,  or  from  cars  alongside  the  wharves,  or  by  cantilever 
crane  at  the  coal  wharf  at  the  Atlantic  entrance. 

Water  is  supplied  from  the  mains  on  the  terminal  wharves 
and  piers.  The  water  in  Gatun  Lake  is  fresh,  but  is  not 
safe  for  drinking  purposes  in  an  untreated  state.  The  water 
sold  at  the  docks  is  drawn  from  the  regular  water-supply 
systems  and  has  been  purified. 
22 


96642°— 1! 


24  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA  CANAL. 

GENERAL  SUPPLIES. 

As  The  Panama  Canal  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company 
are  together  operating  a  large  number  of  vessels  of  a  variety 
of  classes,  from  tugs  to  ocean-going  passenger  and  freight 
vessels,  supplies  for  practically  any  kind  of  vessel  are  kept 
on  hand  on  the  Isthmus.  Such  supplies  are  for  sale  to  all 
ships  using  the  canal,  or  calling  at  the  terminal  ports.  The 
storehouses  at  Cristobal  and  Balboa  have  in  stock  all  stand- 
ard lubricants,  light  and  heavy  hardware,  cordage,  and  mis- 
cellaneous ship-chandlery  supplies. 

Foodstuffs  and  the  general  variety  of  merchandise  han- 
dled by  the  commissary  department  of  The  Panama  Canal 
may  be  purchased  for  ships.  The  fact  that  the  supply  de- 
partment is  supplying  regularly  most  of  the  food  and  wear- 
ing apparel  of  approximately  50,000  people  is  a  warrant  that 
its  operations  are  on  a  scale  which  can  easily  include  the 
needs  of  ships  no\v  coming  to  the  canal.  Prices  are  generally 
lower  than  the  retail  prices  in  the  United  States,  or  possibly 
about  10  per  cent  higher  than  the  wholesale  prices  there,  and 
compare  favorably  with  prices  in  any  port  of  the  world. 

A  large  stock  of  fresh  meats,  vegetables,  fruits,  canned 
groceries,  bakery  products,  etc.,  is  always  on  hand,  and  ad- 
vance arrangements  can  be  made  for  supplies  of  any  article 
obtainable  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Ice  may  be  purchased  in  any  reasonable  quantity. 

Laundry  is  handled  quickly.  No  advance  notice  is  re- 
quired, and  ship's  laundry  can  be  returned  on  the  same  day 
it  is  received.  A  vessel  entering  the  canal  can  forward  its 
laundry  by  rail  to  the  plant  at  Cristobal  or  the  one  at  Ancon 
and  receive  it  back  by  the  time  it  is  ready  to  clear  from  the 
other  end  of  the  canal.  Passengers'  laundry  can  be  handled 
with  corresponding  dispatch,  but  it  is  preferred  to  have  at 
least  two  days  for  the  work. 

REPAIRS. 

Except  for  the  limitations  imposed  at  present  by  the  ab- 
sence of  a  large  dry  dock,  and  of  lathes  for  turning  the 
largest  crank  shafts  and  longest  line  shafts  of  modern  ves- 
sels, the  canal  shops  can  do  practically  any  repair  work  which 


OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL.  25 

a  vessel  might  bring.  Sufficient  materials,  including  heavy 
billets  and  all  sizes  of  plates  and  angles,  are  kept  on  hand  to 
meet  every  probable  need.  The  foundry  can  make  steel  cast- 
ings up  to  5  tons  in  weight,  and  iron  castings  up  to  10  tons, 
as  well  as  brass  castings  of  any  ordinary  size. 

The  shops  at  Balboa  are  equipped  with  a  540-ton  hydraulic 
forging  press,  an  open-side  extension  planer  with  capacity 
to  plane  132  inches  wide,  96  inches  high,  and  24  feet  long, 
lathes  large  enough  for  ordinary  line-shaft  work,  and  the 
usual  accessories  of  fully  equipped  machine,  boiler,  and  ship- 
fitters'  shops.  The  shops  alongside  the  dry  dock  at  Mount 
Hope  can  do  small  machine  work  of  moderate  size,  and  prac- 
tically any  plate  work  likely  to  be  required.  By  submitting 
to  the  delay  necessary  to  transport  parts  to  Balboa,  all  the 
facilities  of  the  Balboa  shops  are  also  available  for  work  at 
Mount  Hope.  The  Mount  Hope  Dry  Dock  can  take  ships 
drawing  13J  feet  of  water  and  300  feet  long ;  the  permanent 
dry  dock  now  under  construction  at  Balboa  will  take  any 
vessel  that  can  pass  through  the  canal. 

The  Balboa  shops  contain  a  plant  for  the  generation  of 
oxygen  and  acetylene,  and  both  they  and  the  shops  at  Mount 
Hope  are  equipped  with  tools  for  all  kinds  of  cutting  and 
welding.  Compressed  air,  steam,  water,  oil,  and  electric  cur- 
rent are  available  at  the  repair  wharves  in  the  maximum 
quantity  required.  Locomotive  and  wrecking  cranes  are 
available  at  the  wharf  side  for  lifting,  and  a  derrick  barge 
with  a  lifting  capacity  of  40  tons  may  be  brought  into  service 
if  necessary.  Two  floating  derricks  of  250-tons  capacity 
have  been  erected  and  are  practically  ready  for  service. 

Contracts  for  doing  repair  work  at  a  stated  cost  can  not 
be  made  b}^  The  Panama  Canal,  though  estimates  of  probable 
cost  can  be  furnished  from  the  shops.  Charges  are  made 
on  the  basis  of  actual  cost  of  repairs,  plus  a  percentage  to 
cover  overhead  expenses,  prescribed  by  The  Panama  Canal. 

HOTEL    AND    HOSPITAL    ACCOMMODATIONS    AND    CABLE    CONNEC- 
TIONS. *- 

The  Hotel  Washington  at  Colon  and  the  Hotel  Tivoli  at 
Ancon,  adjoining  Balboa,  and  the  Hotel  Aspinwall,  on 


26  OFFICIAL  HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

Taboga  Island,  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  Government 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  traveling  public.  Reserva- 
tions can  be  made  in  the  same  way  as  at  privately  owned 
hotels. 

Ancon  Hospital  is  equipped  with  800  beds.  It  treats  about 
35,000  cases  a  year,  in  which  approximately  7,000  surgical 
operations  are  performed.  Its  staff  of  physicians  and  sur- 
geons includes  men  of  marked  experience  and  ability  and 
several  experts  in  tropical  medicine.  The  treatment  of  cases 
from  neighboring  countries  and  from  ships  is  a  part  of  its 
regular  work. 

Direct  cable  connections  extend  from  the  Isthmus  to  New 
York  and  to  the  west  coasts  of  Mexico,  Central,  and  South 
America.  The  radio  stations  at  Colon  and  Balboa  handle 
commercial  business. 

METHOD    OF    APPLICATION    FOR    SUPPLIES. 

Steamship  captains  or  agents  desiring  the  services  of  The 
Panama  Canal  in  the  way  of  supplies,  repairs,  etc.,  will  re- 
ceive prompt  response  on  communicating  Avith  the  Captain 
of  the  Port  at  Balboa  or  Cristobal.  Ships  may  communi- 
cate their  wants  by  radio  in  advance  of  arrival.  The  canal 
organization,  having  made  ample  preparations  for  serving 
vessels,  is  desirous  of  giving  prompt  and  satisfactory  service 
on  a  businesslike  basis  without  unnecessary  delay  or  red  tape. 

The  Captain  of  the  Port  will  furnish  information  in  re- 
gard to  placing  orders,  and  should  be  notified  of  all  orders 
placed,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  keep  track  of  them  in  rela- 
tion to  clearing  ship,  etc. 

Bills  for  all  supplies  will  be  submitted  through  the  offices 
of  the  deputy  collectors  at  the  ports  for  collection,  or  cash 
may  be  sent  with  orders.  Bills  for  supplies  furnished  ships 
of  regularly  established  lines  will  be  submitted  to  the  local 
agents,  if  desired. 

PRICES  OF  SUPPLIES. 

The  following  is  a  partial  list  of  the  charges  prevailing 
at  present  for  various  services,  but  they  are  subject  to  change 
from  time  to  time : 


OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF    PANAMA   CANAL.  27 

Coal. — At  Cristobal,  from  lighters,  trimmed  in  bunkers, 
or  from  cars  alongside  wharf,  handled  by  ships'  gear,  per 
ton,  $5.40;  use  of  steam  hoist  and  crane,  per  hour,  $1.  At 
Balboa  the  price  is  $1  more  per  ton,  either  form  of  delivery. 

Fuel  oil. — Regular  sales,  $1.25  per  barrel. 

Water. — Delivered  at  dock,  25  cents  per  1,000  gallons; 
minimum  charge,  $3. 

General  supplies,  foodstuffs,  etc. — Prices  are  usually  less 
than  retail  prices  in  the  United  States.  Wholesale  lists  may 
be  obtained  from  the  offices  of  the  port  captains. 

Ice. — At  Cristobal,  30  cents  per  100  pounds ;  at  Balboa,  35 
cents  per  100  pounds. 

Laundry. — The  following  representative  prices  will  give  a 
fair  idea  of  charges.  For  passengers:  Drawers  or  under- 
shirts, 10  cents  each ;  socks,  5  cents  per  pair ;  collars,  3  cents 
each.  For  ships :  Waiters'  coats,  10  cents  each ;  blankets,'  10 
cents  each;  trousers  and  jackets,  5  cents  each;  aprons,  caps, 
sheets,  tablecloths,  napkins,  towels,  1  cent  each. 

CHARGES  FOR   SERVICES. 

Barges  and  lighters. — With  towing  machine,  400  tons  or 
over,  $2.25  per  hour;  without  towing  machine,  400  tons  or 
over,  90  cents  per  hour ;  under  400  tons,  30  cents  per  hour. 

The  charge  for  barges  or  lighters  will  depend  upon  the 
kind  and  class  of  service  rendered,  time  in  use,  and  charges 
in  connection  with  handling  freight  and  cargo. 

Wharfage. — All  steam  or  motor  vessels,  per  day  or  frac- 
tion thereof,  per  foot  of  length,  measured  over  all,  12J  cents. 
Sailing  vessels,  100  feet  in  length  or  less,  per  foot,  5  cents; 
over  100  but  less  than  200  feet,  per  foot,  10  cents;  over  200 
feet,  per  foot,  12|  cents. 

Dry  docking  at  Mount  Hope. — For  vessel  docked  alone,  $75 
for  the  first  day,  and  $25  for  each  subsequent  day.  For  a 
vessel  docked  with  another  vessel,  $50  for  the  first  day,  and 
$18  for  each  subsequent  day. 

Launches.— larger  launches,  for  the  first  hour,  $7.50,  and 
$5  for  each  succeeding  hour ;  smaller  launches,  $5  for  the  first 
hour,  and  $2.50  for  each  succeeding  hour. 


28  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

Diverts  service.— For  the  first  four  hours  or  fraction 
thereof  from  time  of  arrival  at  point  of  diving  $60,  for  each 
subsequent  hour  $10. 

Freight. — Rates  for  handling  freight  depend  upon  the 
kind  and  class  of  services  required.  Freight  is  handled  at 
the  terminal  ports  either  by  the  Panama  Railroad  or  the 
agents  of  vessels. 

Tugs. — For  harbor  work,  shifting  berths,  work  around 
piers  or  locks,  and  short  tows,  $15  per  hour.  For  towing 
through  the  canal  4  cents  per  displacement  ton,  or  10  cents 
per  net  Panama  Canal  ton;  minimum  charge  for  towing 
through  the  canal  $150. 

Pilotage. — Charges  are  based  upon  the  maximum  draft; 
rate  per  foot  or  fraction  of  foot  exceeding  6  inches  $1.  In 
case  pilot  is  taken  on  outside  of  the  Atlantic  breakwaters  an 
extra  charge  of  $10  is  imposed.  There  is  no  charge  for  pilot- 
age when  a  vessel  goes  direct  through  the  canal  without  stop- 
ping at  either  terminal  port  to  take  on  or  discharge  cargo  or 
passengers.  Through  passengers  will  be  allowed  to  land 
without  affecting  the  status  of  the  vessel  in  this  respect. 

Tolls. — On  merchant  vessels  carrying  passengers  or  cargo 
per  net  ton  (each  100  cubic  feet)  of  actual  earning  capacity 
$1.20. 

On  vessels  in  ballast  without  passengers  or  cargo,  per  ton, 
75  cents. 

On  naval  vessels,  other  than  transports,  colliers,  hospital 
ships,  and  supply  ships,  per  displacement  ton,  50  cents. 

On  Army  and  Navy  transports,  colliers,  hospital  ships, 
and  supply  ships,  the  vessel  to  be  measured  by  the  same  rules 
as  are  employed  in  determining  the  net  tonnage  of  merchant 
vessels,  per  net  ton,  $1.20. 

Additional  charges  are  made  for  deck  loads,  depending 
on  the  space  occupied ;  per  net  vessel  ton,  $1.20. 

For  passengers,  no  specific  charge  is  made,  but  passenger 
space  is  included  in  the  net  tonnage  upon  which  tolls  are 
charged. 


SAVINGS  IN  COST. 

Fundamentally,  the  saving  to  a  vessel  by  the  use  of  the 
canal  in  place  of  a  longer  route  is  the  difference  between  the 
cost  of  the  voyage  over  the  longer  route  and  the  cost  over 
the  canal  route,  in  which  latter  must  be  included  the  canal 
tolls.  The  actual  cost  per  day  at  sea  on  any  route  is  affected 
by  various  factors,  chief  among  which  are  the  cost  of  fuel 
and  of  supplies  which  must  be  taken  aboard  en  route ;  these 
factors,  as  may  be  judged  from  the  description  of  facilities 
for  vessels  at  the  canal,  and  the  broader  influences  of 
weather,  conditions  at  sea,  and  connections  with  secondary 
trade  areas,  are  generally  favorable  to  the  canal  in  compari- 
son with  alternate  routes.  The  advantage  of  quicker  delivery 
of  goods  is  in  most  cases  an  appreciable  consideration. 

For  a  specific  voyage  between  two  ports,  by  way  of  the 
canal  or  by  an  alternate  route,  the  cost  will  vary  in  any 
number  of  vessels  according  to  their  individual  expenses  of 
operation.  All  cases  can  not  be  covered  by  exact  formula. 
The  following  typical  instances  are,  however,  illustrative  of 
general  conditions : 

With  reference  to  the  trade  from  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States  to  the  Far  East,  the  voyage  of  the  Penrith 
Castle,  which  passed  through  the  canal  on  October  22-23  en 
route  from  Galveston  to  Yokohama  with  a  cargo  of  3,270 
tons  of  raw  cotton,  is  typical. 

By  using  The  Panama  Canal,  this  vessel  saved  at  least 
5.280  miles  of  travel  between  these  ports.  The  distance  via 
the  canal,  San  Francisco,  and  the  Great  Circle  is  9,294  miles ; 
via  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  most  direct  sailing,  about  14,575 
miles.  On  a  speed  of  10  knots  this  means  a  saving  of  22 
days  on  the  outward  voyage  alone. 
30 


OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA  CANAL.  31 

The  Penrith  Castle  is  361  feet  long,  42.6  feet  in  the  beam, 
17.6  feet  in  mean  draft,  has  a  net  registered  tonnage  of  2,337 
by  the  rules  of  measurement  of  the  British  Board  of  Trade, 
and  is  propelled  by  a  three-cylinder,  triple-expansion  engine, 
with  24,  40,  and  67  inch  cylinders  and  45-inch  stroke.  The 
crew  numbers  28,  officers  and  men.  Its  operating  expenses 
may  be  approximated  at  $230  per  day  on  this  route. 

The  saving  of  22  days  at  sea  amounts,  accordingly,  to  a 
saving  of  $5,060.  The  tolls  collected  at  the  canal— $4,101.60 
(at  $1.20  per  ton  on  3,418  tons,  including  111  tons  of  deck 
load) — should  not  be  deducted  from  the  saving,  as  an  equiv- 
alent amount  would  have  been  collected  at  the  Suez  Canal. 

If  the  vessel  had  elected  to  go  by  way  of  the  Strait,  of 
Magellan,  it  would  have  had  to  travel  approximately  15,071 
miles,  or  5,777  miles  farther  than  by  the  canal  route,  and 
the  cost,  on  the  basis  followed  above,  would  have  exceeded 
the  cost  by  the  canal,  including  tolls,  by  $1,533.40.  The  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  route  would  have  increased  the  voyage  about 
7,700  miles  over  the  canal  voyage  and  would  have  cost  at 
least  $3,258.40  more  than  the  use  of  the  canal  route. 

Concerning  the  traffic  between  the  Pacific  coast  of  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  the  following  is  an  approxima- 
tion based  on  the  transit  of  17  vessels  of  foreign  registry 
laden  with  grain  from  San  Francisco  and  Puget  Sound  to 
European  ports,  principally  in  Great  Britain:  The  distance 
saved  by  the  use  of  the  canal  in  place  of  the  Strait  of 
Magellan  was  about  5,550  miles  for  each  vessel.  For  a 
speed  of  10  knots,  the  saving  in  time  at  sea  was  23  days. 
The  average  net  tonnage  of  the  17  vessels — British  Board 
of  Trade  measurement — was  3,094 ;  the  average  net  tonnage 
under  the  rules  for  the  measurement  of  vessels  for  The 
Panama  Canal  was  4,050  tons,  and  the  average  tolls  were, 
accordingly,  $4,860.  If  the  average  per  diem  cost  at  sea  be 
rated  at  $0.09  per  net  registered  ton,  the  average  saving  per 
vessel  by  the  use  of  the  canal  was  the  average  daily  cost  of 
operation — $278.46 — multiplied  by  23,  less  the  canal  tolls, 
or  $1,544.58. 

In  the  traffic  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  the 
United  States,  involving  over  40  per  cent  of  the  movements 


32  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

through  the  canal,  an  idea  of  the  saving  may  be  obtained 
from  the  case  of  one  of  the  American  Hawaiian  Co.'s  liners, 
the  Arizonan,  for  instance:  On  the  basis  of  a  speed  of  12 
knots,  the  canal  saves  the  Arizonan  about  26y8  days  at  sea  on 
each  voyage  from  coast  to  coast.  The  Arizonan  is  a  rela- 
tively large  vessel,  470  feet  long  by  57.2  feet  in  the  beam,  and 
has  carried  as  much  as  11,780  tons  of  cargo  through  the  canal 
on  one  of  her  voyages.  The  canal  tolls  levied  on  each  pas- 
sage are  $7,891.20.  The  cost  of  operating  the  Arizonan  at 
sea  may  be  taken  at  $450  a  day.  For  26  days  this  means 
$11,700,  from  which  the  subtraction  of  the  tolls  leaves  a  net 
saving  of  approximately  $3,808  per  voyage. 

Similar  instances  might  be  cited  without  end.  Those 
given  are  indicative  of  the  great  element  of  saving  which 
will  be  introduced  into  some  of  the  more  important  routes. 


TOLLS. 

To  offset,  at  least  in  part,  the  cost  of  the  maintenance  and 
operation  of  the  canal  and  the  interest  on  the  money  invested 
in  it,  the  Government  charges  tolls  on  the  vessels  which 
make  use  of  it. 

Tolls  are  levied  on  the  basis  of  the  cargo  and  passenger 
carrying  capacity  of  each  vessel.  The  determination  of 
capacity  is  embraced  in  a  set  of  rules  of  measurement  of  ves- 
sels for  The  Panama  Canal,  according  to  which  the  net  ton- 
nage of  a  vessel  is  the  units  of  interior  space  of  100  cubic  feet, 
or  2.83  cubic  meters,  which  may  be  devoted  to  carrying  cargo 
or  passengers. 

The  interior  cargo-carrying  capacity  or  net  canal  tonnage 
is  the  primary  basis  on  which  tolls  are  levied,  but  there  is 
additional  charge  for  open  space  on  deck  occupied  by  cargo 
or  deckload. 

A  vessel  may  be  measured  for  its  Panama  Canal  certificate 
by  the  surveyor  of  any  port  of  the  United  States,  and  copies 
of  the  rules  for  measurement  have  been  sent  to  the  Govern- 
ments of  all  the  principal  maritime  countries  where  duly 
appointed  foreign  officials  may  measure  vessels  and  issue 
certificates;  and  the  canal  maintains  a  staff  to  measure  ves- 
sels which  arrive  at  the  canal  without  a  certificate,  and  to 
check  the  certificates  issued  at  other  ports.  The  canal  force 
can  measure  and  certificate  vessels  ordinarily  in  from  24  to 
36  hours,  if  the  masters  furnish  the  constructor's  blue  prints 
and  the  ship's  certificate  of  national  registry,  or  check  a  pre- 
viously issued  certificate  in  an  hour  unless  it  contains  excep- 
tional errors. 

33 


34  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

Gross  tonnage,  according  to  The  Panama  Canal  rules,  in- 
cludes, in  general,  the  total  capacity  of  the  vessel  or  the  cubi- 
cal contents  of  all  spaces  below  the  upper  deck  and  of  all  per- 
manently covered  or  closed-in  spaces  on  or  above  that  deck, 
excepting  spaces  specifically  designated  for  exemption  from 
such  measurement. 

The  principal  deductions  from  the  gross  tonnage  for  the 
determination  of  the  net  tonnage  include,  in  general,  spaces 
which  serve  for  the  navigation  of  the  ship,  its  propulsion, 
spaces  devoted  to  the  use  of  officers  and  crew,  for  its- fuel  sup- 
ply, boatswain's  stores,  feed-water  tanks,  and  spaces  framed 
in  around  the  funnels  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air  to 
the  engine  and  fire  rooms.  No  space  not  included  in  the 
gross  tonnage  is  ever  deducted  in  the  determination  of  the 
net  tonnage. 

The >  canal  system  of  designation  of  tonnage  differs  some- 
what from  the  systems  in  practice  in  the  United  States  and 
various  foreign  nations  and  from  that  for  the  measurement 
of  vessels  for  the  Suez  Canal.  The  classifications  of  space 
for  registry  are  at  such  variance  that  it  was  decided  to  work 
out  a  separate  plan  for  the  measurement  of  vessels- for  the 
canal  which  should  be  fair  to  all,  irrespective  of  previous 
registry. 

On  loaded  commercial  vessels  the  toll  charge  is  $1.20  per 
net  canal  ton,  plus  $1.20  per  100  cubic  feet  of  deck  load, 
provided  that  the  sum  of  these  charges  shall  not  exceed  an 
amount  equivalent  to  a  charge  of  $1.25  per  net  ton  on  the 
vessel,  as  measured  for  United  States  registry. 

Vessels  going  through  the  canal  without  cargo  or  passen- 
gers— that  is,  in  ballast — will  be  charged  72  cents  per  net 
canal  ton,  provided  that  if  this  amount  is  not  equivalent 
to  the  product  of  the  vessel's  net  tonnage  according  to  meas- 
urement for  American  registry  by  75  cents,  the  larger  sum 
shall  be  collected. 

In  commercial  operations,  steamship  agents  charge  freight 
on  the  basis  of  weight  or  of  space  occupied.  On  the  basis 
of  space,  they  ordinarily  rate  40  cubic  feet  as  a  ton.  Accord- 
ingly, the  100  cubic  feet  called  a  ton  in  canal  measurement 
could  contain  two  and  one-half  tons  of  cargo,  on  the  com- 


36  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

mercial  basis  of  40  cubic  feet  to  the  ton.  In  the  case  of 
ideally  compact  loading,  the  canal  toll  of  $1.20  per  ton  of 
canal  space  would  be  equivalent  to  a  charge  of  48  cents  per 
ship's  ton  of  cargo.  As  a  matter  of  experience  with  vessels 
which  have  so  far  used  the  canal,  with  great  variations  in 
loading,  the  toll  charge  has  averaged  approximately  75  cents 
per  ton  of  cargo  as  declared  in  the  ship's  manifests.  The 
heavier  the  loading  in  proportion  to  capacity  the  smaller  the 
cost  per  ton  of  cargo.  The  steamship  Historian,  rated  at 
5,378  net  canal  tons,  paid  $6,453.60  in  tolls  to  pass  through 
the  canal  on  November  14  on  the  way  from  San  Francisco 
to  London.  She  was  laden  with  12,000  tons  of  cargo  on 
which,  accordingly,  the  cost  per  ton  was  approximately  54 
cents. 

The  Panama  Canal,  however,  has  no  direct  interest  in  the 
proportionate  loading  of  vessels  carrying  cargo  through  the 
canal,  or  in  the  nature  of  the  cargo,  other  than  explosives  or 
other  commodities  requiring  precautions  in  handling  or 
liable  to  menace  the  safety  of  the  canal.  Its  rates  are  en- 
tirely flat,  on  the  simple  basis  of  cargo-carrying  capacity, 
and  there  are  no  complicated  tariffs. 

The  first  tolls  were  collected  on  May  18,  1914,  before  the 
opening  of  the  canal  to  ocean-going  vessels,  and  were  as- 
sessed on  loaded  barges  towed  through  the  canal  by  tugs. 
The  actual  collection  of  tolls  (less  $11,551.20  refunded)  be- 
tween that  date  and  May  1,  1915,  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

Prior  to  Aug.  15,  1914 $11,  610.  69 

Aug.  15  to  31 98,  066. 19 

Sept.  1  to  30 263,220.00 

Oct.  1  to  31 349,986.48 

Nov.  1  to  30 349,  382. 15 

Dec.  1  to  31 395,169.57 

Jan.  1  to  31,  1915 376,  810.  88 

Feb.  1  to  28 403, 118.  36 

Mar.  1  to  31 606,  316.  56 

Apr.  1  to  30 - 420.  884.  69 


Total - 3,274,565.57 


SAILING  SHIPS. 

Prior  to  the  opening  of  the  canal  it  was  widely  assumed 
that  the  new  route  would  not  be  used  by  sailing  vessels,  and 
there  has  been  very  little  discussion  of  the  relations  of  the 
canal  to  sailing  traffic. 

To  date  half  a  dozen  sailing  vessels  have  gone  through  the 
canal.  Something  of  the  cost  of  handling  them  through 
the  canal  may  be  judged  from  these  figures  on  the  passage 
of  the  schooner  Zeta  and  the  barkentine  John  Ena,  which 
went  through  the  canal  well  laden  and  may  be  regarded  as 
typical  of  the  traffic: 

The  Zeta  is  a  wooden  three-masted  schooner  132  feet  long, 
32  feet  in  the  beam,  and  12  feet  deep.  She  is  registered  at 
335  net  tons,  Lloyds'  measurement,  and  at  313  net  tons,  canal 
measurement.  Her  expenses  in  transiting  the  canal  were: 
Tolls,  $520.80;  tug  service,  $150;  total,  $670.80.  The  vessel 
was  carrying  600  tons  of  lumber;  .her  expenses  in  passing 
through  the  canal  amounted  to  $1.118  per  ton  of  cargo. 

The  John  Ena  is  a  four-masted  steel  barkentine,  313  feet 
long,  48  feet  in  the  beam,  and  25  feet  deep.  The  registered 
net  tonnage  of  this  vessel  is  2,706;  the  canal  measurement 
rates  it  at  2,609  net  tons.  Expenses  for  going  through  the 
canal  were:  Tolls,  $3,130.80;  tug  service,  $302.15;  total, 
$3,432.95.  On  a  cargo  of  4,400  tons  of  petroleum  and  wax 
the  total  expenses  prorate  at  78  cents  per  ton. 

To  date,  under  conditions  of  average  loading,  the  tolls  on 
laden  steam  vessels  have  been  equivalent  to  approximately 
75  cents  per  ton  of  cargo  carried. 

From  the  foregoing  instances  it  is  seen  that  sailing  vessels 
can  be  handled  through  the  canal  economically,  as  far  as 
the  actual  passage  of  the  canal  is  concerned.  A  factor  of 

37 


38  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

greater  importance,  admitting  of  less  certainty  in  its  deter- 
mination, is  the  relative  time  which  it  will  take  a  sailing 
vessel  to  reach  the  Isthmus  and  its  ultimate  destination,  in 
comparison  with  the  passage  over  the  longer  alternative 
routes  around  the  Horn  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

On  the  Atlantic  side,  according  to  sailing  directions,  the 
time  of  transit  of  an  average  sailing  vessel  between  New 
York  and  the  Isthmus  may  be  approximated  at  20  days. 
The  time  from  the  English  Channel  to  the  Isthmus  is  reck- 
oned as  30  days  for  a  yearly  average;  the  homeward  voyage 
to  Europe  is  taken  at  40  days.  Limon  Bay  is  easily  acces- 
sible to  sailing  vessels  at  all  times  of  the  year  and  vessels 
may  generally  expect  a  fair  wind  for  entering. 

On  the  Pacific  side  vessels  may  generally  expect  a  fair 
wind  offshore  on  departing  from  the  Isthmus,  light  from 
May  to  November,  and  somewhat  stronger  from  December  to 
April.  Vessels  entering  the  Gulf  of  Panama  will  almost 
invariably  encounter  head  winds,  often  very  light,  and  find 
difficulty  in  beating  up  to  the  canal.  Off  shore  on  the  Pacific 
side  the  regular  trades  may  not  be  expected  until  several 
hundred  miles  off  shore.  Sailing  directions  should  be  freely 
consulted  by  all  sailing  masters,  particularly  in  regard  to 
the  wind  and  currents  on  the  Pacific  side.  If  due  notice  be 
given,  tugs  may  be  obtained  from  the  canal  authorities. 

The  average  time  of  a  sailing  vessel  from  Panama  to  San 
Francisco  is  considered  to  be  between  37  and  40  days;  for 
the  return  about  31  days  from  April  to  October,  and  26 
days  from  October  to  April. 

Accordingly  the  time  of  transit  of  a  vessel  from  New 
York  to  San  Francisco  may  be  reckoned  generally  at  60 
days,  including  a  day  in  the  canal.  The  return  trip  should 
consume  about  57  days  in  the  winter  months  and  62  in  the 
summer  season.  The  generally  accepted  average  time  for 
sailing  vessels  to  go  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco 
around  Cape  Horn  is  140  da}^s;  the  return  voyage  requires 
from  110  to  115  days.  On  this  basis  the  normal  time  for  a 
round  trip  between  the  two  ports  by  way  of  the  canal  may 
be  rated  at  120  days ;  by  way  of  the  Horn  about  250  days. 


40  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF    PANAMA   CANAL. 

The  extent  to  which  sailing  vessels  will  use  the  canal  will 
be  dependent  on  many  conditions  in  the  shipping  world, 
but  it  appears  that  under  normal  conditions  the  canal  route 
is  favorable  to  them.  For  instance,  on  the  voyage  from  New 
York  to  San  Francisco  under  average  conditions  a  vessel 
might  be  expected  to  save  80  days  at  sea.  Shipowners  state 
that  a  vessel  of  2,000  tons  net  may  be  operated  at  sea  at  a 
cost  of  $75  per  day.  The  charges  for  passing  such  a  vessel 
through  the  canal  would  approximate  $2,700.  If  these 
charges  be  subtracted  from  the  saving  of  80  days  at  sea,  at 
$75  per  day,  or  $6,000,  the  net  saving  to  the  operator  would 
be  $3,300. 

In  the  case  of  such  a  vessel  the  saving  of  36  days  at  sea 
would  cover  its  canal  expenses.  Between  this  period  and 
the  normal  expectation  of  saving  by  way  of  the  canal,  80 
days,  is  a  leeway  of  44  days;  that  is,  if  the  operator  used 
the  canal  and  then  had  his  vessel  arrive  44  days  late,  as  com- 
pared to  the  normal  voyage  over  the  route,  he  would  still 
"break  even."  If  the  vessel  arrived  30  days  late  over  the 
normal  time,  he  would  be  benefited  to  the  extent  of  14  days 
at  sea,  which,  at  $75  per  day,  is  equivalent  to  $1,050. 


THE  CANAL  AND  THE  NAVY. 

The  opening  of  the  canal  has  greatly  increased  the  effec- 
tiveness of  the  Navy  of  the  United  States.  It  has  reduced 
the  distance  between  the  central  points  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  coasts  from  13,000  to  5,000  miles  and  greatly  reduced 
the  problem  of  coaling  on  a  cruise  from  coast  to  coast.  It 
has  made  possible  the  concentration  of  a  fleet  at  either 
entrance  of  the  canal  which,  with  a  cruising  speed  of  15 
knots,  could  reach  the  center  of  the  Pacific  coast  in  9  days 
and  the  center  of  the  Atlantic  coast  in  5  days. 

Where  formerly  the  fleets  stationed  opposite  the  middle 
of  each  coast  were,  from  a  cruising  point  of  view,  as  far 
apart  as  opposite  sides  of  the  world,  they  are  now  as  near 
as  if  one  were  off  New  York  and  the  other  off  Buenos 
Aires. 

With  regard  to  the  monetary  saving  to  the  United  States 
resulting  from  the  availability  of  the  canal  for  naval  use, 
it  is  apparent  that  the  distance  and  time  between  the  coasts 
have  been  reduced  to  less  than  two-fifths  of  the  former  fig- 
ures. The  cost  of  coast-to-coast  movements  is  reduced 
accordingly,  for  though  vessels  of  the  Navy  pay  tolls,  such 
payment  is  in  effect  a  transfer  of  money  from  one  branch 
of  the  Government  to  another. 

The  strategic  importance  of  the  canal  is  inestimable  from 
a  monetary  standpoint. 

41 


FEATURES  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  Isthmus  of  Panama  connects  the  two  continents 
through  an  elbow  or  segment  of  an  arc  running  almost  east 
and  west.  The  canal  runs  more  nearly  north  and  south  than 
east  and  west,  and  the  Pacific  end  of  it  is  east  of  the  Atlantic 
end.  The  starting  point  in  Limon  Bay  lies  at  latitude  9°  23' 
north  by  longitude  79°  56'  west,  and  the  other  end  of  the 
canal,  in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  lies  at  8°  54'  north  by  79°  32' 
west. 

The  distance  by  air  from  shore  to  shore  of  this  narrow  part 
of  the  Isthmus  is  about  30  miles.  The  canal  is  43.84  nautical 
miles  in  length  from  deep  water  to  deep  water.  It  passes 
through  a  varied  and  picturesque  country,  at  places  rugged, 
and  where  Gaillard  Cut1  goes  through  the  Continental  Di- 
vide the  lowest  point  was  formerly  some  700  feet  above  sea 
level.  The  route  selected  has,  in  general,  followed  the  valley 
of  the  Mindi  and  Chagres  Rivers  on  the  Atlantic  slope  of  the 
divide,  and  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  Pacific  slope. 
Sea-level  channels  were  dredged  inward  from  either  end  of 
the  canal  as  far  as  practicable — that  is,,  from  deep  water  in 
the  Pacific  northward  to  Miraflores,  and  from?  deep  water 
in  the  Atlantic  southward  to  Gatun — and  two  artificial  lakes 
were  formed  by  damming  the  ^waters  of  the  rivers 'at  higher 
levels,  one,  the  Miraflores  Lake,  extending  between  Miraflores 
and  Pedro  Miguel,  with  surface  54f  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
the  other,  Gatun  Lake,  extending  from  Pedro  Miguel  to 
Gatun,  with  surface  85  feet  above  sea  level.  Gaillard  Cut, 
which  is  approximately  8  miles  long,  forms  the  southern  arm 

1  The  "  Culebra  Cut  "  was  renamed  "  Gaillard  Cut "  by  Executive  order  of 
the  President  dated  April  27,  1915. 

42 


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44  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

of  the  Gatun  Lake.  The  locks  at  Miraflores,  Pedro  Miguel, 
and  Gatun  are  used  as  elevators  for  raising  and  lowering 
vessels  between  the  levels  mentioned. 

From  the  initial  station  in  Limon  Bay,  on  the  Atlantic  side, 
the  canal  runs  almost  due  south  7  miles  in  a  sea-level  section 
reaching  to  the  valley  of  the  Chagres  at  Gatun.  Here  is  the 
great  Gatun  Dam,  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  closing  a 
gap  through  the  western  end  of  the  Quebrancha  Range.  The 
dam  is  an  artificial  ridge  formed  by  pumping  an  impervious 
core  of  dredged  clay  and  sand  between  parallel  ridges  or 
'•  toes  "  of  rock  and  earth.  Its  construction,  across  swampy 
bottoms,  wras  considered  the  most  difficult  feature  of  the 
canal.  The  top  was  smoothed  over  with  earth,  and  the  part 
of  the  slope  on  the  lake  side,  lying  between  levels  10  feet 
above  and  10  feet  below  the  normal  water  surface,  has 
been  riprapped  with  hard  rock  to  protect  against  wave  ero- 
sion. 

As  completed,  Gatun  Dam  is  about  half  a  mile  wide  at  the 
base  and  100  feet  wide  at  the  top,  which  is  103.5  feet  above 
sea  level.  It  contains  10,728,965  cubic  yards  of  wet  fill  and 
12,229,104  cubic  yards  of  dry  fill,  a  total  22,958,069  cubic 
yards,  which  is  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  total  excavation 
from  Gaillard  Cut  to  date. 

Near  the  center  of  the  dam  is  a  concrete  spillway,  for  dis- 
charging the  surplus  waters  of  the  lake  into  the  lower  chan- 
nel of  the  Chagres.  The  discharge  channel  is  285  feet  wide 
and  1,200  feet  long;  and  the  spillway  dam  across  its  upper 
end  is  808  feet  long,  being  in  the  form  of  an  arc  of  a  circle. 
The  top  of  this  dam  is  69  feet  above  sea  level,  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  regulating  gates  20  feet  high,  the  tops  of  which 
are  accordingly  at  elevation  89  feet,  or  2  feet  above  the  pro- 
posed maximum  elevation  of  the  lake.  The  14  regulating 
gates  are  installed  between  vertical  concrete  piers  and  are 
raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  chains  running  over  sheaves 
at  the  top  of  the  piers  and  down  through  the  piers  to  the 
operating  machinery  in  the  body  of  the  dam.  The  operating 
machinery  is  accessible  by  means  of  a  tunnel  through  the  cen- 
ter of  the  spillway  dam,  and  may  be  operated  by  remote 
control  from  a  switchboard  in  the  hydroelectric  station, 


OFFICIAL    HANDBOOK    OF    PANAMA   CANAL.  45 

which  is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  spillway  discharge 
channel.  When  all  the  gates  are  open  the  discharge  of  water 
is  greater  than  any  known  rate  of  run-off  from  the  Chagres 
watershed.  Dropping  down  the  60-foot  slope  of  the  ogee  and 
striking  against  the  baffle  piers  at  the  bottom,  the  water 
makes  a  turbulent  fall  which  is  one  of  the  beautiful  sights 
of  the  Isthmus. 

The  hydroelectric  station  uses  water  from  Gatun  Lake  for 
driving  three  turbo-generators  of  2,000-kilowatt  capacity 
each,  which  supply  electricity  for  the  operation  of  the  lock 
and  spillway  machinery,  the  terminal  shops  and  adjacent 
facilities,  and  for  the  lighting  of  the  locks  and  the  canal 
villages  and  fortifications.  Transmission  over  the  Zone  is 
effected  through  four  substations  and  a  connecting  high  volt- 
age transmission  line  which  follows  the  main  line  of  the 
Panama  Railroad. 

Gatun  Lake,  impounded  by  Gatun  Dam,  has  an  area  of 
164  square  miles  when  its  surface  is  at  the  normal  elevation 
of  85  feet  above  sea  level,  and  is  the  largest  artificially  formed 
lake  in  the  world.  The  area  of  the  watershed  tributary  to 
the  lake  is  1,320  square  miles.  During  the  rainy  season, 
from  April  to  the  latter  part  of  December,  the  run-off  from 
this  basin  exceeds  considerably  the  consumption  of  water, 
and  the  surplus  is  discharged  through  the  spillway  of  Gatun 
Dam.  Toward  the  end  of  the  rainy  season  the  surface  of  the 
lake  is  raised  to  about  87  feet  above  sea  level,  in  order  to 
afford  a  surplus  or  reserve  supply  to  keep  the  channel  full  to 
operating  depth  during  the  dry  season,  in  part  of  which  the 
consumption  and  evaporation  are  in  excess  of  the  supply. 
It  is  calculated  that  when  this  level  has  been  attained  at  the 
beginning  of  the  dry  season  the  reserve  is  sufficient  to  assure 
a  surface  elevation  of  at  least  79  feet  at  the  end  of  the  dry 
season  in  spite  of  the  consumption  at  the  hydroelectric  sta- 
tion, and  allowing  41  passages  of  vessels  through  the  locks 
each  day  with  the  use  of  the  full  length  of  the  chambers,  or 
58  lockages  a  day  when  the  shorter  sections  of  the  chambers 
are  used  and  cross  filling  is  employed,  which  would  usually 
be  the  case.  This  is  a  greater  number  of  lockages  than  can  be 
made  in  one  day. 


46  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

The  creation  of  the  lake  made  it  possible  to  have  a  channel 
45  feet  deep  with  its  bottom  at  40  feet  above  sea  level.  By 
following  the  valley  of  the  Chagres  as  far  as  Gamboa,  24 
miles  of  channel  were  thus  completed  with  relatively  little 
excavation.  At  the  same  time  the  lake,  by  backing  water 
far  up  the  valleys  of  the  Chagres  and  its  tributaries,  deadens 
the  currents  of  the  rivers  before  they  reach  the  canal  channel 
and  decreases  silting  to  a  minimum. 

At  Gamboa  the  Chagres  Valley  turns  sharply  to  the  east 
and  the  line  of  the  canal  leaves  it  for  the  heavy  cut  through 
the  Continental  Divide.  Gaillard  Cut,  forming  the  passage- 
way between  the  opposite  slopes  of  the  divide,  is  7.97  miles 
long,  300  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  from  45  to  65  feet  in 
depth.  The  great  depth  of  the  Cut  is  responsible  for  the 
magnitude  of  the  slides,  which  are  breaks  in  the  banks,  due 
to  the  pressure  of  the  material.  The  elementary  phenomena 
of  slides  are  encountered  in  almost  any  kind  of  cutting  or 
trenching  through  earth;  the  great  depth  of  the  Gaillard 
Cut  has  caused  similar  breaks  even  in  ordinarily  firm  rock. 
The  slides  are  responsible  for  35,158,225  cubic  yards  of  addi- 
tional excavation  to  February  1,  1915.  To  that  date  the 
total  excavation  from  the  Cut  has  been  117,077,044  cubic 
yards.  The  Cut  is  an  arm  of  Gatun  Lake  and  its  bottom 
is  accordingly  40  feet  above  sea  level. 

At  the  south  end  of  the  Cut,  on  the  Pacific  slope  of  the 
divide,  the  waters  are  held  back  by  Pedro  Miguel  Dam  and 
Lock.  The  dam  is  of  earth,  protected  by  rock  riprap  at  the 
water  levels,  and  is  1,400  feet  long,  extending  from  a  high 
hill  on  the  west  to  the  lock,  which  is  set  at  the  base  of  a  high 
hill  on  the  east. 

Below  Pedro  Miguel  Lock  and  Dam  is  a  small  lake,  Mira- 
flores  Lake,  through  which  the  channel  passes  to  Miraflores 
Locks,  which  effect  the  transit  between  Mirdflores  Lake  and 
the  Pacific  entrance  channel.  The  surface  is  normally  55 
feet  above  sea  level.  Its  area  is  1.88  square  miles,  and  it  may 
always  be  kept  at  full  depth  by  supplying  water,  if  needed, 
from  Gatun  Lake,  as  to  fill  it  completely  from  Gatun  Lake 
would  lower  the  surface  of  the  latter  less  than  6  inches.  The 
length  of  the  canal  channel  through  it  is  1.4  miles.  The  lake 


II 

o    - 

<t 


48  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

is  impounded  by  an  earth  dam  2,700  feet  long,  connecting 
with  Miraflores  Locks  from  the  west,  and  by  a  concrete  spill- 
way dam  to  the  east  of  the  locks,  500  feet  long,  on  which  are 
mounted  eight  regulating  gates  similar  to  those  on  the  Gatun 
Spillway. 

The  transits  between  the  several  levels  of  the  canal — be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  Gatun  Lake,  between  Gatun  Lake 
(Gaillard  Cut)  and  Miraflores  Lake,  and  between  Mira- 
flores Lake  and  the  Pacific — are  effected  by  means  of  massive 
locks  of  concrete  and  gates  of  steel. 

Three  sets  of  locks  were  built — one  set  in  three  successive 
levels  at  Gatun,  a  set  with  one  lift  at  Pedro  Miguel,  and  a 
set  with  two  lifts  at  Miraflores.  The  differences  in  levels 
overcome  at  the  three  places  are,  respectively,  85  y  30 J,  and 
54f  feet,  the  latter  varying  according  to  the  tide  in  the 
Pacific,  the  figure  given  being  for  mean  tide. 

Each  lock  consists  of  two  parallel  chambers,  which  effect 
a  double-tracking  of  the  channel  and  allow  vessels  going  in 
opposite  directions  to  use  the  same  flight  of  locks  simul- 
taneously. All  of  the  chambers  have  the  same  length^  1,000 
feet,  and  width,  110  feet;  the  depth  of  water  in  the  locks 
varies  from  approximately  81  feet  when  a  boat  is  being 
locked  down  and  45  feet  when  a  boat  is  being  locked  up,  and 
there  is  always  a  minimum  depth  over  the  gate  sill  of  45  feet. 

At  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  each  set  of  locks  the 
center  wall  was  extended  approximately  1,250  feet  to  form 
a  long  pier,  against  which  entering  vessels  can  bring  up 
before  entering  the  chambers  of  the  locks  proper;  and  the 
side  walls  were  flared  out  at  an  angle  of  60°  to  form  a 
funnel-shaped  entrance.  Both  the  center-approach  walls  and 
the  flare  walls-  are  fitted  with  strips  of  timbers  resting  on 
helical  springs  to  form  buffers  for  the  vessels,  and  the  outer- 
end  of  the  center  wall  is  fitted  with  a  resilient  fender  of 
heavy  timbers.  . 

The  channels  of  the  lock  are  blocked  by  massive  steel 
gates  which  cut  off  the  flow  of  water  and  divide  the  locks 
into  chambers.  The  flow  of  water  into  and  from  the  cham- 
bers is  effected  through  culverts  running  longitudinally 
through  the  bottoms  of  the  side  and  center  walls  and  feeding 


50  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

into  the  chambers  through  lateral  culverts  running  under 
thl  floors  of  the  chambers  and  emptying  upward.  The  cul- 
verts are  controlled  by  valves. 

In  all  92  leaves,  forming  46  gates  of  two  leaves  each,  are 
used  in  the  three  sets  of  locks.  Each  leaf  is  65  feet  long,  so 
that  when  two  are  swung  together  to  form  a  closed  gate 
they  meet  in  the  center  of  the  110-foot  width  at  an  obtuse 
angle.  The  leaves  are  so  set  that  this  junction  always  points 
upstream  against  the  downward  pressure  of  the  water; 
this  pressure  accordingly  forces  them  firmly  together  and 
affords  an  element  of  safety,  since  a  gate  can  not  be  opened 
until  the  water  on  both  sides  has  been  equalized.  The  leaves 
range  from  47  to  82  feet  in  height,  according  to  location, 
and  they  weigh  from  390  to  730  tons  each.  The  82-foot  gates 
occur  only  at  the  lower  end  of  Miraflores  Locks,  where  they 
are  necessary  on  account  of  tidal  conditions. 

The  leaves  are  hinged  to  anchorages  in  the  walls  and  are 
swung  back  and  forth  like  ordinary  gates.  They  are  moved 
by  machines  driven  by  electric  motors.  In  fact,  every  piece 
of  mechanism  in  the  locks  is  actuated  by  electricity,  and  this 
has  made  possible  a  central  control  by  which  an  operator 
at  a  central  switchboard  can  cause  every  movement  of  the 
lock  equipment  except  the  running  of  the  towing  loco- 
motives, which  are  under  the  control  of  individual  opera- 
tors riding  on  them,  and  the  handling  of  the  emergency 
dams. 


TRAFFIC   ROUTES. 


During  the  first  six  months  of  canal  operation,  from 
August  15,  1914,  to  February  15,  1915,  it  was  seen  that  at 
least  95  out  of  every  100  ships  using  the  canal  were  traveling 
over  four  great  trade  routes. 

These  were  the  routes  of  coastwise  trade  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  the  United  States;  the  route 
between  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  and  Europe;  a 
route  between  the  west  coast  of  South  America  and  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Europe  (vessels  fre- 
quently proceeding  along  one  of  these  coasts  and  across  to  the 
other)  ;  and  a  route  between  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  the  Far  East,  including  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land. 

During  the  first  six  months  496  ocean-going  vessels  passed 
through  the  canal.  The  way  they  were  going  and  the  cargo 
carried  bv  them  ma  v  be  summarized  in  this  manner : 


Route. 

Number 
of 
vessels. 

Cargo 
tonnage. 

United  States  coastwise,  eastbound  

97 

499.  439 

United  States  coastwise,  westbound 

109 

493,  272 

United  States  Pacific  coast  to  Europe 

66 

444  855 

Europe  to  United  States  Pacific  coast  

16 

59,516 

South  America  to  United  States  and  Europe 

378,  386 

United  States  and  Europe  to  South  America 

31 

128  922 

United  States  Atlantic  coast  to  Far  East  

48 

287,  782 

Far  East  to  United  States  Atlantic  coast 

2 

14,  500 

Miscellaneous  routings  

13 

60,572 

Vessels  without  cargo                                 

45 

Total 

496 

2,  367,  244 

The  heaviest  traffic,  from  the  Pacific  coast  to  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United    States,   has   consisted   principally   of 

51 


52  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK   OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

canned  fruit  and  fish,  lumber,  wine,  pineapples,  sugar,  ores, 
and  other  items  of  the  general  produce  of  the  west  coast  and 
adjacent  inland  areas.  The  return  leg  of  this  trade,  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  has  con- 
sisted principally  of  coal,  structural  iron,  machinery,  and, 
above  all,  a  great  variety  of  merchandise.  Some  idea  of  it 
may  be  gained  from  the  following  note,  which  appeared  in 
the  Canal  Eecord  of  March  24,  1915 : 

As  an  example  of  the  great  variety  of  goods  carried  in  the  west- 
bound United  States  coastwise  trade,  it  is  interesting  to  note  some  of 
the  items  in  the  cargo  of  4,500  tons  carried  by  the  Peter  II.  Croivell 
through  the  canal  March  10  on  the  way  from  New  York  to  Los  Angeles 
and  San  Francisco.  Among  the  items  listed  by  the  master  on  the 
partial  cargo  declaration  form  supplied  by  The  Panama  Canal  were : 
Battery  cells,  caustic  soda,  olives,  chemicals,  earthenware,  glassware, 
lard,  liquors,  structural  steel,  machinery,  refined  petroleum,  vegetable 
oils,  paint,  paper  and  paperware,  pianos,  rubber  goods,  salt,  soap, 
stamped  ware,  textiles,  tobacco,  wooden  ware,  marble,  starch,  and 
thread ;  and  the  declaration  was  finished  with  "  Balance,  1,189  tons, 
small  lots  of  various  articles." 

From  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  to 
Europe,  over  half  the  traffic  was  in  grain,  and  the  balance  wras 
in  the  same  sort  of  general  produce  which  constitutes  the 
bulk  of  the  eastbound  American  coastwise  trade.  Forty-four 
vessels  carried  western  grain  to  Europe  during  the  first  six 
months  of  canal  operation.  They  transported  155,146  tons 
of  wheat  and  134,145  tons  of  barley.  Expressed  in  bushels 
the  quantities  were  5,752,402  bushels  of  wheat  and  6,170,670 
bushels  of  barley,  an  aggregate  of  over  11,923.000  bushels  of 
grain. 

The  trade  from  Europe  direct  to  the  west  coast  has  been 
about  one-seventh  that  from  the  west  coast  to  Europe.  The 
cargo  has  been  mostly  coal  and  those  sorts  of  general  mer- 
chandise which  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  trade  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
Numbers  of  vessels  have  gone  through  the  canal  empty  or 
"  in  ballast "  from  the  Atlantic  to  load  with  cargo  on  the 
Pacific  coast  and  return.  This  was  especially  noticeable  at 
one  time  in  the  traffic  in  grain. 


z 
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54  OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 

The  traffic  from  the  west  coast  of  South  America  to  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  has  had  as  its  largest 
single  item  nitrates.  Of  this  item,  204,441  tons  were  shipped 
through  the  canal  during  the  first  six  months  of  operation, 
the  greater  part  going  to  the  United  States.  Iron  ore  has 
been  another  important  item,  amounting  in  the  period  to 
41,300  tons.  Other  items  distinguished  by  their  size  were 
fuel  oil  and  benzene,  amounting  to  16,799  tons,  and  sugar, 
about  18,000  tons,  of  which  13,360  tons  came  through  in  two 
ships.  In  addition  to  these,  there  was  an  export  of  about 
100,000  tons  of  general  cargo,  a  great  variety  of  native 
produce,  in  which  ores,  wool,  hardwoods,  and  grain  are  note- 
worthy. 

The  traffic  to  South  America  through  the  canal  during  the 
first  six  months  was  less  than  one-half  of  the  exportations 
from  the  west  coast  which  passed  through  the  canal.  The  31 
laden  vessels  which  made  the  transit  on  their  way  to  the  west 
coast  carried  128,922  tons  of  cargo.  This  was  mainly  ma- 
chinery, structural  material,  clothing,  and  a  great  variety  of 
general  merchandise. 

Shipments  from  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States 
to  the  Far  East  included  87,857  tons  of  refined  petroleum  and 
other  petroleum  products,  38,239  tons  of  raw  cotton,  and 
162,686  tons  of  a  great  variety  of  manufactured  goods,  of 
which  machinery,  structural  steel,  railroad  material,  and 
textiles  have  been  considerable  items.  About  half  of  these 
vessels  cleared  for  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the  rest  for 
Japan,  China,  and  Vladivostok.  The  trade  to  Vladivostok 
has  been  unexpectedly  heavy. 

During  the  first  six  months  only  two  vessels  returned 
through  the  canal  directly  from  the  Far  East.  Most  of  the 
vessels  which  go  out  over  this  route  load  in  the  Far  East  for 
ports  in  Europe  or  return  first  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  North 
America,  discharging  cargo  there  and  reloading.  The  cargo 
coming  through  the  canal  from  the  Far  East  has  included 
Chinese  groceries,  matting,  antimony,  vegetable  oils,  curios, 
rattan,  bamboo,  silk,  tallow,  tea,  wool,  etc. 

The  routes  just  described  were  used  by  all  but  13  of  the 
vessels  passing  through  the  canal  during  its  first  half  year. 


OFFICIAL    HANDBOOK    OF   PANAMA   CANAL.  55 

The  13  miscellaneous  vessels  not  to  be  classified  with  the  prin- 
cipal routes  included  4  vessels  of  a  whaling  fleet,  on  the  way 
from  Magdalena  Bay  to  Norway ;  several  stray  vessels  in  the 
Central  American  coasting  trade,  and  several  vessels  carry- 
ing coal  to  undeclared  destinations. 

The  half  dozen  leading  commodities  shipped  through  the 
canal  during  the  first  half  year  were,  in  order  of  their  ton- 
nage, grain,  nitrates,  coal,  refined  petroleum  products,  lum- 
ber, and  cotton.  These  six  commodities  together  amounted 
to  approximately  one-third  of  all  goods  shipped  through  the 
canal. 

Grain  shipments  amounted  to  303,124  tons,  of  which  all 
but  13,733  tons  were  shipped  from  the  west  coast  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  Of  the  other  13,733  tons,  6,200 
tons  were  barley  shipped  from  Valparaiso  to  Great  Britain 
and  7,533  tons  were  wheat  shipped  from  St.  Johns,  New 
Brunswick,  to  New  Zealand. 

The  grain  shipments  from  the  west  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica consisted  of  155,246  tons  of  wheat  (5,744,000  bushels) 
and  134,145  tons  of  barley  (6,170,000  bushels),  a  total  of 
approximately  11,914,000  bushels. 

Nitrates  shipped  from  the  west  coast  of  South  America 
to  various  ports  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  amounted 
to  204,441  tons. 

Coal,  all  moving  to  the  Pacific,  amounted  to  151,745  tons. 
Of  this  quantity,  83,081  tons  were  shipped  from  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  of  the  United  States  and  68,664  tons  from  the 
United  Kingdom. 

Eefined  petroleum  and  other  products  amounted  to  102,456 
tons,  of  which  87,857  tons  were  shipped  from  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  of  the  United  States  to  China,  Japan,  and  Korea, 
and  14,599  tons  were  shipped  from  Talara,  Peru,  to  Great 
Britain. 

Shipments  of  lumber  amounted  to  56,078  tons.  All  but 
600  tons  (shipped  from  Gulf  port  to  Panama  City)  were 
from  the  west  coast  of  North  America.  Of  the  55,478  tons 
shipped  from  the  west  coast  all  were  shipped  from  ports 
of  the  United  States  except  6,891  tons  from  Nanaimo,  British 
Columbia. 


56 


OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF   PANAMA   CANAL. 


Raw  cotton  shipments  amounted  to  38,239  tons,  en  route 
from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United  States  to  the  Far 
East.  Over  70  per  cent  of  the  cotton  passing  through  the 
canal  was  consigned  to  Japan. 

The  total  cargo  handled  through  the  canal  in  its  first  half 
year  was  2,367,244  tons.  In  the  month  and  a  half  after 
February  15  nearly  1,000,000  tons  more  of  cargo  went 
through  the  canal,  and  the  total  up  to  April  1  was  3,246,019 
tons.  Its  proportionate  distribution  over  the  principal  routes 
is  about  the  same,  as  shown  in  the  following  tabulation : 


Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Total 
tonnage. 

United  States  coastwise  castbound 

137 

650,  921 

United  States  coastwise,  westbound  

132 

616,  872 

1  °67  793 

North  Pacific  coast  to  Europe 

83 

6°0,  988 

Europe  to  North  Pacific  coast     .        

21 

6.3,043 

689  031 

South  and  Central  America  to  United  States  and  Europe. 
United  States  and  Europe  to  South  and  Central  America. 

103 
53 

593,  812 
100,330 

784  1  <9 

Atlantic  coast  to  Far  East 

62 

373,007 

Far  East  to  \tlantic  coast  

6 

45,100 

418  197 

Miscellaneous  routines 

16 

86,856 

56 

Grand  total    .  .           

679 

3.246,019 

Up  to  April  1,  1915.  the  canal  had  been  in  operation  seven 
and  a  half  months.  Through  that  period  the  movement  of 
cargo  averaged  432,802  tons  a  month,  which  is  at  the  rate  of 
over  5,000,000  tons  a  year. 

An  expression  of  this  quantity  in  terms  of  railway  traffic 
is  illuminating.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1914, 
the  Panama  Railroad  handled  643,178  tons  of  through 
freight  between  the  seaboards  of  the  Isthmus.  During  that 
year  the  railroad  was  supposed  to  be  handling  more  freight 
per  mile  of  track  than  any  other  railroad  in  the  world.  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  through  traffic  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
that  year  was  within  9,000  tons  of  the  amount  carried 
through  the  canal  during  the  month  of  March,  1915  (which 
was  635,057  tons)  ;  in  other  words,  that  the  canal  has  handled 
in  a  month  almost  as  much  as  the  railroad  did  during  a  year. 


'      .OFFICIAL   HANDBOOK    OF    PANAMA   CANAL. 

The  trains  of  the  Panama  Railroad  engaged  in  hauling 
through  freight  were  made  up  of  from  18  to  20  loaded  cars, 
carrying  in  the  aggregate  about  350  tons.  To  handle  5,000,- 
000  tons  of  cargo  across  the  Isthmus  in  a  year  by  rail  would 
require  the  operation  of  39  trains  a  day.  It  would  mean 
dispatching  a  train  each  way  every  hour  and  a  quarter,  and 
trains  passing  a  given  point  about  every  40  minutes  through 
every  hour  of  the  year.  The  14,285  trains  necessary  for 
handling  this  traffic  would  have,  at  800  feet  each,  an  aggre- 
gate length  of  over  2,142  miles,  greater  than  the  distance 
from  New  York  to  Colon.  In  a  single  train  the  cars  would 
reach  from  New  York  to  Chicago  and  back,  or  from  New 
York  to  Chicago  and  then  down  to  New  Orleans,  and  leave 
several  hundred  miles  of  train  to  spare. 

During  the  month  of  March,  1915,  the  laden  vessels  going 
through  the  canal  had  an  average  of  5,040  tons  of  cargo. 
Thus  the  vessels  contained,  on  an  average,  over  14  trainloads 
of  goods  each. 

The  locomotives  and  trains  of  the  Panama  Railroad  are 
about  the  average  in  freight  work.  A  comparison  in  the 
maximum  terms  of  railway  traffic  is  afforded  by  the  trial 
trip  made  last  year  by  what  was  called  the  world's  largest 
locomotive,  the  "  Matt  H.  Shay,"  of  the  Erie  Railroad.  This 
was  termed  "  three  engines  in  one,"  and  on  its  trial  trip  han- 
dled a  train  of  55  cars  of  coal,  said  to  have  been  the  heaviest 
train  ever  hauled  from  Baltimore  to  Philadelphia  by  one 
locomotive.  This  train  carried  4,012  tons,  which  is  less  than 
the  average  load  on  each  ship  going  through  the  canal. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 
LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


f      6fr. 


USB 


RECTD  1 


JAN  7    1961 


rcB4  ro 


!3Apr'6lSS 


*EC'D  LD 


(  3 1  796? 


use 


EC'D  LD 


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-  7 


LL 


LD  21A-50TO-8,'57 
(C8481slO)476B 


rary 


1^'aterecau. 


LD  JUN3 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


